2016年10月29日雅思閱讀真題回憶

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　　一：考試概述

　　本次考試的文章中有兩篇舊文章，難度中等。文章主要內(nèi)容是關(guān)于城市化帶來的好處、 螞蟻間的學習、意外性學。主要考察的題型為判斷題、填空題、選擇題。

　　二：具體題目分析

　　Passage 1 ：

　　題材：社會

　　題號：舊題

　　題型：選段落標題+填空

　　參考文章：

　　The Biology and Psychology of Crowding in Man and Animals

　　A Of the great myriad of problems which man and world face today, there are three significant trends which stand above all others in importance: the unprecedented population growth throughout the world — a net increase of 1,400,000 people per week —and all of its associations and consequences; the increasing urbanisation of these people，so that more and more of them are rushing into cities and urban areas of the world; and the tremendous explosion of communication and social contact throughout the world, so that every part of the world is now aware of every other pan. All of these trends are producing increased crowding and the perception of crowding.

　　B It is important to emphasise at the outset that crowding and density are not necessarily the same. Density is the number of individuals per unit area or unit space. It is a simple physical measurement. Crowding is a product of density, communication, contact, and activity. It implies a pressure, a force, and a psychological reaction. It may occur at widely different densities. The frontiersman may have felt crowded when someone built a homestead a mile away. The suburbanite may feel relatively uncrowded in a small house on a half-acre lot if it is surrounded by trees, bushes and a hedgerow, even though he lives under much higher physical density than did the frontiersman. Hence, crowding is very much a psychological and ecological phenomenon, and not just a physical condition.

　　C A classic crowding study was done by Calhoun 54，who put rats into a physical environment designed to accommodate 50 rats and provided enough food, water, and nesting materials for the number of rats in the environment. The rat population peaked at 80, providing a look at cramped living conditions. Although the rats experienced no resource limitations other than space restriction, a number of negative conditions developed: the two most dominant males took harems of several female rats and occupied more than their share of space, leaving other rats even more crowded, many females stopped building nests and abandoned their infant rats; the pregnancy rate declined; infant and adult mortality rates increased; more aggressive and physical attacks occurred; sexual variation increased, including hyper-sexuality, inhibited sexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality.

　　D Calhoun's results have led to other research on crowding’s effects on human beings, and these research findings have suggested that high density is not the single cause of negative effects on humans. When crowding is defined only in terms of spatial density (the amount of space per person), the effects of crowding are variable. However, if crowding is defined in terms of social density, or the number of people who must interact, then crowding better predicts negative psychological and physical effects.

　　E There are several reasons why crowding makes us feel uncomfortable. One reason is related to stimulus overload — there are just too many stimuli competing for our attention. We cannot notice or respond to all of them. This feeling is typical of the hurried mother, who has several children competing for her attention, while she is on the phone and the doorbell is ringing. This leaves her feeling confused, fatigued and yearning to withdraw from the situation. There are strong feelings of a lack of privacy — being unable to pay attention to what you want without being repeatedly interrupted or observed by others.

　　F Field studies done in a variety of settings illustrate that social density is associated with negative effects on human beings. In prison studies, males generally became more aggressive with increases in density. In male prison, inmates living in conditions of higher densities were more likely to suffer from fight. Males rated themselves as more aggressive in small rooms (a situation of high spatial density), whilst the females rated themselves as more aggressive in large rooms (Stokols et al. 1973). These differences relate to the different personal space requirements of the genders. Besides, Baum and Greenberg found that high density leads to decreased attraction, both physical attraction and liking towards others and it appears to have gender differences in the impact that density has on attraction levels, with males experiencing a more extreme reaction. Also, the greater the density is, the less the helping behaviour. One reason why the level of helping behaviour may be reduced in crowded situations links to the concept of diffusion of responsibility. The more people that are present in a situation that requires help, the less often help is given. This may be due to the fact that people diffuse responsibility among themselves with no-one feeling that they ought to be the one to help.

　　G Facing all these problems, what are we going to do with them? The more control a person has over the crowded environment the less negatively they experience it thus the perceived crowding is less (Schmidt and Keating). The ability to cope with crowding is also influenced by the relationship the individual has with the other people in the situation. The high density will be interpreted less negatively if the individual experiences it with people he likes. One of the main coping strategies employed to limit the impact of high density is social withdrawal. This includes behaviours such as averting the gaze and using negative body language to attempt to block and potential intrusions.

　　Reading Passage 3 has nine paragraphs, A-G.

　　Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, I -XI, in boxes on your answer sheet.

　　List of Headings

　　I The difference between crowding and density

　　II The effects of crowding in different situations on human beings

　　III The terrible results of the crowding study

　　IV The effective solutions to the crowding problem

　　V The reasons of increasing crowding

　　VI The best strategy to cope with the crowding problem一social withdrawal VII Different definitions of crowding and their effects on human beings

　　VI The only reason why people feel bad

　　IX The reasons why crowding affects people's feelings

　　X Three most important trends that people may face today

　　XI What is crowding

　　28 Paragraph A

　　29 Paragraph B

　　30 Paragraph C

　　31 Paragraph D

　　32 Paragraph E

　　33 Paragraph F

　　34 Paragraph G

　　Complete the sentences below.

　　Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 3 for each answer.

　　Write your answers in boxes on your answer sheet.

　　Calhoun's study about rats shows that they may become aggressive despite no

　　35、When the definition of crowding concerns with _______， or interaction, it may affects people both psychologically and physically.

　　36、Crowding makes people feel insufficient_______，because people cannot do what they

　　37、That males are more aggressive in small rooms and females are more aggressive in large rooms shows the different ______ of genders.

　　38、High density may reduce helping behaviour due to the ______.

　　39、 People feel less crowding if they can ______ more over the situation.

　　40、 The most effective way to reduce the effect of high density on human beings is ______.

　　參考答案：

　　Resource limitations

　　Social density

　　privacy

　　personal space requirements

　　diffusion of responsibility

　　control

　　social withdrawal

　　答案僅供參考

　　Passage 2：

　　題材：動物

　　題型：選擇+填空

　　題號：舊題

　　參考文章：

　　Ants could Teach Ants

　　The ants are tiny and usually nest between rocks in the south coast of England. Transformed into research subjects at the University of Bristol, they raced along a tabletop foraging for food – and then, remarkably, returned to guide others. Time and again, followers trailed behind leaders, darting this way and that along the route, presumably to memorize landmarks. Once a follower got its bearings, it tapped the leader with its antennae, prompting the lesson to literally proceed to the next step. The ants were only looking for food, but the researchers said the careful way the leaders led followers---thereby turning them into leaders in their own right - marked the Temnothorax albipennis ant as the very first example of a non-human animal exhibiting teaching behavior.

　　"Within the field of animal behavior，we would say an animal is a teacher if it modifies behavior in the presence of another, at cost to itself, so another individual can learn more quickly,” said Nigel R. Franks, professor of animal behavior and ecology, whose paper on the ant educators was published last week in the journal Nature. But defining even common behaviors such as teaching is complex, and it is even harder to understand what is happening in the brains of other animals. So it is no surprise that the paper has sparked debate over what constitutes learning and teaching in the non-human world.

　　“Tandem running is an example of teaching, to our knowledge the first in a non-human animal, that involves bidirectional feedback between teacher and pupil," wrote Franks and graduate student Tom Richardson, who spent countless hours poring over videotape. No sooner was the paper published，of course, than another educator (this one at Harvard) pooh-poohed it. Marc D. Hauser, a psychologist and biologist and one of the scientists who came up with the definition of teaching, said it was unclear whether the ants had learned a new skill or merely acquired new information. Mere communication of information is commonplace in the animal world Hauser noted. Consider a species，for example, that uses alarm calls to warn fellow members about the presence of a predator. Sounding the alarm can be costly, because the animal may draw the attention of the predator to itself. But it allows others to flee to safety.

　　Hauser cited the work of another scientist, Tim Caro, who found that cheetah mothers that take their cubs along on hunts gradually allow their cubs to do more of the hunting ~ going, for example, from killing a gazelle and allowing young cubs to eat to merely tripping the gazelle and letting the cubs finish it off. At one level, Hauser said，such behavior might be called teaching — except the mother was not really teaching the cubs to hunt but merely facilitating various stages of learning. Psychologists study animal behavior in part to understand the evolutionary roots of human behavior, Hauser said. The challenge in understanding whether other animals truly teach one another, he added, is that human teaching involves a "theory of mind" — teachers are aware that students don't know something. He questioned whether Franks's leader ants really knew that the follower ants were ignorant.

　　Could they simply have been following an instinctive rule to proceed when the followers tapped them on the legs or abdomen? And did leaders that led the way to food — only to find that it had been removed by the experimenter — incur the wrath of followers? That, Hauser said, would suggest that the follower ant actually knew the leader was more knowledgeable and not merely following an instinctive routine itself.

　　Franks responded by saying that the two-way communication between the ants was quite different than merely sounding an alarm about a predator. And, he added, the follower ant often did not use the same direct route on its return trip. Once led to food, ants found new paths back to the nest，F(xiàn)ranks and Richardson found, and those paths were sometimes more direct than the route that leaders had shown them.

　　In other words, Franks said, the teaching appeared to give follower ants more than just information; it generally increased their knowledge of the foraging environment.

　　Bennett G. Galef Jr., a psychologist who studies animal behavior and social learning at McMaster University in Canada, sided with Franks. He said ants were unlikely to have a "theory of mind" — meaning that leaders and followers may well have been following instinctive routines that were not based on an understanding of what was happening in another ant's brain.

　　Passage 3 ：

　　題材：社會科學

　　題型：選擇+填空+配對

　　題號：舊題

　　參考文章：

　　The Accidental Scientist

　　A A paradox lies close to the heart of scientific discovery. If you know just what you are looking for, finding it can hardly count as a discovery, since it was fully anticipated. But if, on the other hand, you have no notion of what you are looking for, you cannot know when you have found it, and discovery, as such, is out of the question. In the philosophy of science, these extremes map onto the purist forms of deductivism and inductivism: In the former, the outcome is supposed to be logically contained in the premises you start with; in the latter, you are recommended to start with no expectations whatsoever and see what turns up.

　　B As in so many things, the ideal position is widely supposed to reside somewhere in between these two impossible-to-realize extremes. You want to have a good enough idea of what you are looking for to be surprised when you find something else of value, and you want to be ignorant enough of your end point that you can entertain alternative outcomes. Scientific discovery should, therefore, have an accidental aspect，but not too much of one. Serendipity is a word that expresses a position something like that. It’s a fascinating word, and the late Robert King Merton — "the father of the sociology of science” 一 liked it well enough to compose its biography, assisted by the French cultural historian Elinor Barber.

　　C The word did not appear in the published literature until the early 19th century and did not become well enough known to use without explanation until sometime in the first third of the 20th century. Antiquarians, following Walpole, found use for it, as they were always rummaging about for curiosities，and unexpected but pleasant surprises were not unknown to them. Some people just seemed to have a knack for that sort of thing, and serendipity was used to express that special capacity.

　　D The other community that came to dwell on serendipity to say something important about their practice was that of scientists, and here usages cut to the heart of the matter and were often vigorously contested. Many scientists, including the Harvard physiologist Walter Cannon and, later, the British immunologist Peter Medawar，liked to emphasize how much of scientific discovery was unplanned and even accidental. One of Cannon's favorite examples of such serendipity is Luigi Galvanic observation of the twitching of dissected frogs' legs, hanging from a copper wire, when they accidentally touched an iron railing, leading to the discovery of "galvanism”; another is Hans Christian 0rsted's discovery of electromagnetism when he unintentionally brought a current-carrying wire parallel to a magnetic needle. Rhetoric about the sufficiency of rational method was so much hot air. Indeed, as Medawar insisted in The Art of the Soluble, "There is no such thing as The Scientific Method,w no way at all of systematizing the process of discovery. Really important discoveries had a way of showing up when they had a mind to do so and not when you were looking for them. Maybe some scientists, like some book collectors, had a happy knack; maybe serendipity described the situation rather than a personal skill or capacity.

　　E In this connection, the aphorism of choice came from no less an authority on scientific discovery than Louis Pasteur: ”Chance favors the prepared mind." Accidents may happen， and things may turn up unplanned and unforeseen, as one is looking for something else, but the ability to notice such events, to see their potential bearing and meaning, to exploit their occurrence and make constructive use of them—these are the results of systematic mental preparation. What seems like an accident is just another form of expertise. On closer inspection, it is insisted, accident dissolves into sagacity.

　　F But the conjunction of chance and expertise was, indeed, part of Walpole's original definition: The three princes made their discoveries "by accidents and sagacity，" and the example of the mule was one that Sherlock Holmes, or Umberto Eco's William of Baskerville，using what the philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce called "abductive inference," would have been proud of. Some scientists using the word meant to stress those accidents belonging to the situation; some treated serendipity as a personal capacity; many others exploited the ambiguity of the notion.

　　G The context in which scientific serendipity was most contested and had its greatest resonance was that connected with the idea of planned science. If you thought that scientific research could be confidently planned—as many Marxists, and some corporate capitalists and Pentagon functionaries, did—then you were making a massive bet against serendipity. If on the other hand, you considered that efforts to organize, regiment and plan science were ill-advised, then you could recruit serendipity to your cause. The serendipitists were not all inhabitants of academic ivory towers. As Merlon and Barber note, two of the great early-20th-century American pioneers of industrial research — Willis Whitney and Irving Langmuir, both of General Electric —made much play of serendipity, in the course of arguing against overly rigid research planning.

　　H It is a humane vision, and this biography of serendipity is a humane, learned and very wise book. It was finished in 1958 and lay in Merlon's files until just a few years ago. His explanation that it was put aside as a mere prologue to another book doesn’t carry complete conviction. A plausible alternative is that American academic sociology was then well on its way to taking a radically different direction from that represented in this book: less humane, more rationalistic, less concerned with the vagaries and contingencies of concrete human action, less willing to attend to voices speaking of unanticipated consequences, complexities and, indeed, serendipity.

　　G As his subsequent career illustrates, Merton himself must have had ambivalent feelings about these differences in sociological sensibilities: Scientism pulled him in one direction, humanism in another; and in tfie subsequent decades, scientism exerted the stronger pull. Perhaps Merton felt that the time for such a book had passed. It is a pity that we had to wait so long for it, since The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity is the great man’s greatest achievement.

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